Chemicals in Disinfectants and Sterilants

Chemicals in Disinfectants and Sterilants Discuss the uses and modes of action of chemicals used as disinfectants and sterilants Disinfectants and sterilants have been available in a variety of forms for a great number of years. The pioneering work of Joseph Lister and Ignaz Semmelweis effectively opened the door to the range of chemicals that we have available today. Phenols (carbolic acid derivatives), mercuric chloride, chlorides, hypochlorites and iodine were the first major groups to be utilised. The quaternary ammonium compounds rose to prominence in the 1930s (Russell, A. D. 2002 [I]). The first detailed studies on the subject of mode of action were published by Cooper, who described the action of phenols as denaturing bacterial proteins as their main mode of operation (Cooper E A 1912) Knaysi expanded this work further by suggesting that the order of death amongst cells was determined by some form of resistance (Knaysi G 1930) and that this might be linked to the protein structure of the cell wall (Knaysi G et al. 1930). Further work on phenol suggested that resistance of E.Coli was the same at virtually any concentration of phenol (Jordan, R. C et al. 1944) and this lead to the development of the concept of specific enzyme inhibition. (Roberts, M. H et al. 1946) The term biocide is becoming more commonly used to describe the generic group. Russell (A D 2002 [II]) makes the comment that, until recently, two views permeated the field. One was that as long as they were effective, there seemed little merit in determining how they arrived at their inhibitory or lethal effects and secondly, that they were believed to act as protoplasmic poisons and, as such did not merit much attention. We will present evidence to dispute both of these views. Specific work on the mode of action of the biocides has been sporadic until comparatively recently. Gram-positive and -negative bacteria appear to have received the lion’s share of the research with less on the mycobacterium, less still on fungal and viral agents (Maillard, J.-Y et al. 1997), and few quality papers on the protozoa. (Turner, N. A et al. 1999). We know even less still on the ability of biocides to inactivate prions. (Taylor, D. M 1997). Because of the wide range of potential biocidal (and biostatic) agents, it is not possible to even begin to tackle the question of mode of action in this essay on any but the most general terms There are a number of current research issues such as the question of why it is that MIC’s of some cationic biocides such as chlorhexidine is similar for both mycobacterium and staphylococci yet they appear to possess low mycobacterium potency but are rapidly lethal to the staphylococci (Russell A D 1996) Current considered opinion is that the majority (if not all) cells are not killed by a disactivation of a single target enzyme by the biocide. (Hugo, W. B. 1999) Specific examples would be that enoyl reductase, (an enzyme involved in fatty acid synthesis) is totally inhibited by triclosan it is a combination of other intracellular disruptions that prove to be lethal to the cell. (Suller, M. T. E et al. 2000) A number of researchers have commented on the apparent similarities between the disinfectants and sterilants group and the antibiotic group in terms of their effect on bacteria. To give specific examples, filament formation in Gm-ve. Bacteria is induced by both antibiotics (eg. ß-lactams andfluoroquinolones) and biocides (eg.phenoxyethanol and chloroacetamide) (Ng, E et al. 2002). Equally we have mentioned the action of triclosan on enoyl reductase, but this enzyme is also inhibited by isoniazid. (McMurry, L. M et al. 1999). A third category of similarity would be that the cell autolysis observed with both the phenols and some mercuric compounds is apparently the same as the processes observed with exposure to penicillin. (Hugo, W. B. 1999). Other research groups (McKellar, R. C et al. 1996) have noted that exposure to some biocides can render a pathogen more susceptible to the action of antibiotics. It was postulated (although not proved) that this effect may be due to a structural change resulting in differing permeability in the cell wall of the microbe. (Morris, A et al. 1991) It is not intended to imply that because these mechanisms appear similar that they are actually the biochemically or physiologically the same. Further research is needed to clarify these points We have made comment on the apparent ability of some biocides to interfere with the integrity of the cell wall. In the case of the bacteria and fungi this may be a useful attribute to exploit, but it is a different matter in dealing with viral (and phage) vectors. The problem being that if the viral envelope which is usually derived from the host cell is damaged, then this can result in the liberation of intact viral nucleic acid which, in itself, may be infective. (McClure, A. R et al. 1992) If we consider one mechanism in some detail by way of an example, we could consider the action of chlorhexidine. This has been shown to produce a very rapid lethal effect ( about 20 seconds) in both E.Coli and Staph. Aureus. (Denyer, S. P. 1995). It has been shown to produce damage to the outer cell membrane, but this action does not directly cause cell death. (El-Moug, T et al. 1985) Chlorhexidine then crosses the damaged membrane by passive diffusion and causes leakage of the intracellular components. The cause of cell death is the inactivation of the intracellular constituents by protein denaturation of their controlling enzyme systems. This causes a further congealing of the cytoplasm and this reduces cellular leakage. This is the so-called biphasic mechanism of action of chlorhexidine. (Longworth, A. R. 1971). There was a suggestion that chlorhexidine bound and inactivated the membrane-bound ATPase. It thereby disrupts the membrane potential and this is thought to be the prime mechanism of cell death .(Barett-Bee, K et al. 1994) In conclusion, we have considered some of the mechanisms that are thought to be active in the bioactivity of disinfectants and sterilants. In doing so we should also consider the question of resistance. Many pathogens have efflux systems which can combat or eliminate biocides from their environment. These can work at comparatively low concentrations of the biocide. But it opens up the possibility of the development of biocide resistance in those cells which survive the initial exposure (possibly due to incomplete treatment or peripheral exposure to low concentrations of agent). This mechanism selectively favours the emergence of biocide-resistant pathogens. (Azachi, M et al. 1996) This issue has prompted calls for the rotation of disinfectants and sterilants in hospitals and elsewhere. (Benarde, M. A et al. 1967). The use of one disinfectant should ideally be replaced with another which has a completely dissimilar mode of action. This is one argument for the study of the mode of action of both disinfectants and sterilants. Other arguments for studying the mechanisms of action of the biocides are many, not least is the fact that the knowledge of the mechanism of how a particular biocide can exert its effect can lead to the selective development of new targeted compounds with greater efficiency. An example of this process is the development of ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA), which was specifically developed and adapted from â€Å"older† compounds. (Behr, H et al. 1994) References Azachi, M., Y. Henis, R. Shapira, and A. Oren. 1996.  The role of the outer membrane in formaldehyde tolerance in Escherichia coli VU3695 and Halomonas sp. MAC.  Microbiology 142:1249-1254 Barett-Bee, K., L. Newboult, and S. Edwards. 1994.  The membrane destabilizing action of the antibacterial agent chlorhexidine. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 119:249-254 Behr, H., M. E. Reverdy, C. Mabilat, J. Freney, and J. Fleurette. 1994.  Relation entre le niveau des concentrations minimales inhibitrices de cinq antiseptiques et la prà ©sence du gà ¨ne qacA chez Staphylococcus aureus.  Pathol. Biol. 42:438-444 Benarde, M. A., W. B. Snow, V. P. Olivieri, and B. Davidson. 1967.  Kinetics and mechanism of bacterial disinfection by chlorine dioxide.  Appl. Microbiol. 15:257-265 Cooper, E. A. (1912).  On the relationship of phenol and m-cresol to proteins: a contribution to our knowledge of the mechanism of disinfection.  Biochemical Journal 6, 362–87. Denyer, S. P. 1995.  Mechanisms of action of antibacterial biocides.  Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 36:227-245. El-Moug, T., D. T. Rogers, J. R. Furr, B. M. A. El-Falaha, and A. D. Russell. 1985.  Antiseptic-induced changes in the cell surface of a chlorhexidine-sensitive and a chlorhexidine-resistant strain of Providencia stuartii.  J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 16:685-689 Hugo, W. B. (1999).  Disinfection mechanisms. In Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization, 3rd edn, (Russell, A. D., Hugo, W. B. Ayliffe, G. A. J., Eds), pp. 258–83.  Blackwell Science, Oxford Jordan, R. C. Jacobs, S. E. (1944).  Studies on the dynamics of disinfection. I. New data on the reaction between phenol and Bact. coli using an improved technique, together with an analysis of the distribution of resistance amongst the cells of the bacterial population studied.  Journal of Hygiene (Cambridge) 43, 275–89. Knaysi, G. (1930).  Disinfection. I. The development of our knowledge of disinfection.  Journal of Infectious Diseases 47, 293–302. Knaysi, G. Morris, G. (1930).  The manner of death of certain bacteria and yeast when subjected to mild chemical and physical agents.  Journal of Infectious Diseases 47, 303–17. Longworth, A. R. 1971.  Chlorhexidine, p. 95-106. In W. B. Hugo (ed.), Inhibition and destruction of the microbial cell.  Academic Press, Ltd., London, England. Maillard, J.-Y. Russell, A. D. (1997).  Viricidal activity and mechanisms of action of biocides.  Science Progress 80, 287–315 McClure, A. R., and J. Gordon. 1992.  In vitro evaluation of povidone-iodine and chlorhexidine against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.  J. Hosp. Infect. 21:291-299 McKellar, R. C., McKenzie, C. N. Kushner, D. J. (1996).  Correlation of resistance to proflavine and penicillin in Escherichia coli. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 10, 765–7   McMurry, L. M., McDermott, P. F. Levy, S. B. (1999).Genetic evidence that InhA of Mycobacterium smegmatis is a target for triclosan. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 43, 711–3 Morris, A. Russell, A. D. (1991).  The mode of action of novobiocin. In Progress in Medicinal Chemistry, (Ellis, G. P. West, G. B., Eds), Vol. 41, pp. 39–59.  Butterworths, London.   Ng, E. G.-L., Jones, S., Leong, S. H. Russell, A. D. (2002).  Biocides and antibiotics with apparently similar actions on bacteria: is there the potential for cross-resistance?  Journal of Hospital Infection 2002 Vol 3 pgs 239-242 Roberts, M. H. Rahn, O. (1946).  The amount of enzyme inactivation at bacteriostatic and bactericidal concentrations of disinfectants.  Journal of Bacteriology 42, 639–44. Russell, A. D. (1996).  Activity of biocides against mycobacteria.  Journal of Applied Bacteriology, Symp. Suppl. 81, 87S–101S. Russell, A. D. 2002 (I)  Introduction of biocides into clinical practice and the impact on antibiotic resistant bacteria.  Journal of Applied Microbiology, Symp. Suppl. 2002 Russell A D 2002 (II)  Mechanisms of antimicrobial action of antiseptics and disinfectants: an increasingly important area of investigation  Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (2002) 49, 597-599 Suller, M. T. E. Russell, A. D. (2000).  Triclosan and antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus.  Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 46, 11–8 Taylor, D. M 1997.  Inactivation of unconventional agents of the transmissible degenerative encephalopathies. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press.  Blackwell Science, Oxford, England. Turner, N. A., Russell, A. D., Furr, J. R. Lloyd, D. (1999).  Editorial: Acanthamoeba spp., antimicrobial agents and contact lenses.  Science Progress 82, 1–8

Describe a Person who has influenced you in either a bad or good way Es

Describe a Person who has influenced you in either a bad or good way Bright blue paint was chipped off the tarnished wooden siding. The glassy images were blurred, and their sills seemed to be decaying under the large collections of dust. There was a young girl playing by herself in the unkempt front lawn. This dwelling always caught my attention; it attracted me in a peculiar way. Whenever I walked down my block, my awareness was drawn to this particular house. Its run-down look set it apart from the rest of the houses on Tuttle Street, but I soon realized the contents within this house were priceless. â€Å"We have a new student today,† Mr. Kurys ecstatically said. She seemed familiar, but I couldn’t pinpoint exactly why. It didn’t matter to me anyway; I already had my group of friends. â€Å"Wait a minute†¦. What’s her name?† That’s impossible! I have never met another Justyna before. From that day on, I looked at this girl from a completely different perspective. Just because we had the same name, I began to pay a little more attention to her. Before I knew it, two years passed and we were now in sixth grade. Justyna & Justyna BFF was written on practically anything we could think of. Her move from catholic school to our small public school became a huge impact on the next few years of my life. I was always over her house, if she wasn’t over mine. Having different classes was fine; we always managed to meet in the bathroom or by the water fountain to d...

Boundaries of the I-Function in Twins :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Boundaries of the I-Function in Twins Identical, conjoined, and half-twins are all examples of intrinsic variability in humans. Intrinsic variability exists in all animals and is an adaptive mechanism built into the nervous system in response to input. This mechanism allows humans to distinguish the same inputs as different from one another and therefore, the possible outputs vary with time. It is possible that due to identical genetic input, the twins could share identical neural pathways and identical I-Functions. This hypothesis could explain the identical behaviors and inter-connectedness of feelings and thoughts that twins share. Differences that are seen in twin behaviors could simply be due to intrinsic variability causing differing output or behaviors. During ovulation, when a woman releases an ovum, three different processes can occur. First, the ovum can remain in one piece all the way to the uterus where, if not fertilized, it will be shed out of the body along with the unused endometrium. Second, the ovum, if fertilized, can develop into a single embryo, which is the most common type of pregnancy in humans with about 99% of all births being singletons (1). Finally, the ovum can split into two separate halves resulting in genetically identical twins. The three types of twins previously mentioned are identical, which are created when the fertilized ovum separates into two complete, identical parts, conjoined, which occur as a result of a fertilized ovum not completing the equal separation resulting in two fetuses fused together in some way, and half-twins or polar body twins, which are made when an unfertilized ovum splits into two complete, identical parts and is then fertilized by two different sperm. The frequency of identical twins is 3.5 per 100 births (1) and the frequency of conjoined twins is 1 birth per 50,000 with only 100 known cases surviving their first year (5). There is no scientific explanation for why an ovum splits into two or more parts. It has been observed that ovum splitting can be hereditary but can also occur spontaneously. This spontaneity or unexplained divergence from normal egg growth and fertilization could be due to intrinsic variability. This intrinsic variability could also be connected to certain differences in behavior of two genetically and culturally identical twins. Ideally, one could say that twins with identical genetic information and environments would have extremely similar, if not the same neural pathways and central pattern generators (CPGs).

Essay --

In the poems â€Å"Hawk Roosting† and â€Å"Golden Retrievals,† Ted Hughes and Mark Doty, respectively, portray differing views of the world from the perspectives of two different animals. Hughes depicts a hawk as omnipotent, cunning, and calculating in its actions and motives; whereas Doty conveys the animal perspective through a golden retrieval depicted as carefree and joyful. Through utilization of poetic devices, both authors offer contrasting characterizations of the two animals and distinct perspectives of the world. Through use of poetic devices, Hughes and Doty, respectively, characterize the hawk and the golden retrieval in different lights to ultimately reveal the animals' views on themselves. Hughes’ poem, the â€Å"Hawk Roosting,† features a self-obsessed and demanding Hawk. The author characterizes the hawk through the use of first person point of view. The use of personal pronouns â€Å"mine,† â€Å"my,† and â€Å"I† furthers the author’s point that the Hawk believes the world revolves around it and it alone. It seems oblivious to the importance of the world around it. It takes on the position of a king; the hawk presides over everything. Furthermore, the Hawk never seems to mention any other living creature. As far as it is concerned, every other creature is entirely irrelevant and has no place in the world. Moreover, the hawk sees itself as a God-like creature. The hawk may â€Å"kill where [it pleases]† and in the most gruesome â€Å"ma nner,...tearing off heads.† The hawk seems to have declared itself grim reaper at this point in the poem. The hawk has no one to answer to and thus does and plans accordingly. It almost brags to the audience about its unique ability of killing other creatures in the most brutal way possible; it enjoys the viciousness of... ...ife, demonstrating that humans also calculate and systematically plan for the future, collectively trying to be the best of the best at all times much like the hawk. Hughes’ systematic hawk makes Doty’s golden retrieval seem very much lost and distracted as each day passes. The hawk would like nothing more than to fly alone and dictate the universe, whereas the dog simply travels with his master as nothing more than a companion. The hawk recognizes the world around him with a callous superciliousness and deliberate approach for the future while the dog lives in the present and concentrates on the small, but valuable things in life. Both animals live their lives differently and individually as humans do. The utilization of an animal’s point of view is accomplished completely in both poems as the poets connect the animals’ thought processes to that of the human race.

Character Analysis of Sylvia from “A White Heron” Essay

â€Å"There never was such a child for straying about out-of-doors since the world was made† (Jewett 69). A young girl, Sylvia, lived in a city environment for the first eight years of her life. Then, Sylvia came to live with her grandmother in the country, where the little girl came alive and became one with nature. One day in her travels through the countryside with her cow she encounter a lost ornithologist who was in search of a white heron that he had spotted in the area weeks before. At first, the little girl was frightened of this man who carried and gun and killed the creatures that he cared so deeply about. She could not understand why this man would do such a thing. However, as they spent time together, Sylvia found this man most charming and delightful. In the short story, â€Å"A White Heron,† by Sarah Orne Jewett, a young country girl’s innocence is lost when her heart is torn between her love for a young bird collector and her love for nature. Sylvia is isolated while living at the farmhouse; her only companion is a cow. Sylvia may be lonely, but she is not lonesome. She is much happier and lively here than in the crowded industrial town. At the farm, she spends all day outside and lives in unity with the environment that surrounds her. â€Å"They key to her vivacity is that she is utterly in harmony with nature† (Held 171). When the ornithologist aggressively whistles in her territory her equilibrium is upset. The man explains to the horror-stricken girl that he got lost while in pursuit of the white heron. â€Å"Thus when Jewett first introduces the ornithologist himself, she labels him â€Å"the enemy† (171). There seems to be something threatening in his very â€Å"boyness† that makes Sylvia fearful. Her awe of the ornithologist may in part be caused by his being the first grow-up boy she has seen in her woodland isolation† (171). The hunter attempts to induce Sylvia to lead him to the wanted bird by offering her a reward of ten dollars. â€Å"Despite his attractive qualities, there is something insidious about his attempt to bribe the girl in effect to betray her world. He suggests a sort of blithe Satan tempting a naà ¯ve Eve to eat of the fruit Tree of Knowledge† (171). When she thinks about how poor she is, her mind wanders off after the â€Å"treasures† that his money could buy. This introduction of money into Sylvia’s simplicity disrupted her sense of loyalty to nature. However, as they spent time together, Sylvia found this man most appealing. Her virgin heart that lied dormant, vigorously awakened, as the innocent child was overwhelmed with an emotion of love towards this mysterious man. â€Å"Sylvia still watched the young man with loving admiration. She had never seen anybody so charming and delightful; the woman’s heart, asleep in the child, was vaguely thrilled by a dream of love.† This does not surprise me though, it is common for young girls to have a crush on or become attracted to a charming older man who impresses them. Sylvia knew where the sportsman could find this precious bird he was in search of. Sylvia and the man are true to the gender roles society has bestowed upon them while traveling through the dense woodlands. The female instinct inside her would not allow her to lead the guest to the heron’s nest, nor be the first to start up a conversation with the guest. Instead, she kept silent observing all around her, watching his every move, and concentrating on every word spoken from his lips. â€Å"She grieved because the longed-for white heron was elusive, but she did not lead the guest, she only followed, and there was no such thing as speaking first.† â€Å"Her socialization, ironically, saves her from revealing the bird and therefore betraying her world to this intruder†(172). The day outing with the bird collector brings Sylvia closer to him, and distances her from the natural world. She could get no sleep that night, and ventured out into the forest. She climbed, and climbed the huge oak tree in search of the heron’s nest. â€Å"Once she is aloft in the pine tree, â€Å"the sharp dry twigs caught and held her and scratched her like angry talons, the pitch made her little fingers clumsy and stiff,† as though nature itself sought to keep her from succeeding in her project and thereby breaching their heart-to-heart relationship† (173). Then came the light as she neared the treetop, and a sea of sky appeared to her over the entire countryside. Only then was the heron’s exact location of the heron’s nest showed to her. She had discovered the bird’s hiding place among the green marsh. When she sees the beautiful bird, she comes back to reality and realizes the superficiality of the man. She recognizes that the  man has come between her and nature. â€Å"In this instant Sylvia balances the desire to earn the ten dollars and to please the attractive stranger against her unspoken fidelity to nature† (173). She knew that the man was well worth making happy, and after all he promised them a nice some of money, so she would also be happy. No, Sylvia could not do it. She would not give the birds life away. The girl and bird had united that morning in the golden sea, and this forbid her to speak. Her heart had developed into that of a strong feminist who could not be swayed by the charm of a man. She gave her love and devotion to the natural world that would always be there for her. In the story, â€Å"A White Heron† the heron, Sylvia, is tempted by â€Å"evil† represented by the sportsman to betray her natural self. The story emphasizes the eternal struggle between the forces of good and evil, and the continual seduction of good by evil. The story concludes that all â€Å"woodland and summertime secrets are like the heron’s safe. For in the end the heron’s life has become the equivalent of the girl’s life, at least of her existence heart to heart with nature† (174). The story implies that in a sense Sylvia is the heron, untouched and at peace with the surrounding environment. However due to external forces, the hunter in this case, the virgin Sylvia endures a loss of innocence. If Sylvia surrendered the heron it would be the equivalence of giving up a part of her and what she stands for. The heron and Sylvia depend on each other for survival. It was impossible for her to abandon her integrity and allegiance to nature or else she would no longer be Sylvia. Sylvia was able to resist the appeal of man, money, and attention. Sylvia displayed her growth as a woman by staying committed to her strong sense of values, and strengthening her heart to heart relationship with nature. Works Cited Bogard, C.R., and J.Z. Schmidt. 1995. Legacies. Harcourt College Publishers, New York, 1380. Held, George. Short Story Criticism. Volume VI. Detroit: Gale Research Inc., 1990.

Shareholder Activism Essay

Can shareholder activism actually deliver the desired change? Introduction The increasing awareness of shareholders and their level of importance to the modern organisation have raised multiple questions as to the potential role which shareholders can play in influencing the decision making of the management team and their willingness to engage with a broad range of stakeholders. Where shareholders have an impact to any degree, this is referred to as shareholder activism and is largely described as being the role that shareholders play in dominating the decisions made by management teams (Bainbridge, 1995). Whilst it is readily accepted that shareholders own the company, whereas directors manage the company, there has historically been a misapprehension that shareholders are simply interested in the financial profits that the company produces. It is argued in this paper that this is not the case and shareholders are becoming much more involved in ensuring a balanced approach and that organisations have a wider awareness of issues such as corporate social re sponsibility (Schacht, 1995). The purpose of this paper is to consider whether or not this type of shareholder activism can actually be seen to be delivering a positive change, specifically in the area of corporate social responsibility. In order to look at this issue and the development of CSR, shareholder activism in its entirety needs to be looked at, before then considering the legal regime which encourages such activism and any specific cases that are relevant, before drawing conclusions on the key question. Shareholder activism – the Theoretical Perspective The management of an organisation has, for a long time, accepted that the performance of a business is down to them and that, if the shareholders are unhappy about the performance or the returns of the business they may potentially walk away from the organisation or the position of the manager may be in jeopardy. Where shareholders take this type of action on board, it can be suggested that shareholder activism is in operation. Broadly speaking, there are several key reasons why which investors may pursue the shareholder activist approach. Firstly, shareholder activism occurs in order to procure a better return on shareholder investment; secondly, to ensure that the company pursues a different corporate strategy that will ultimately improve performance and profitability, a key example of this being the suggestion that the company should demerge; thirdly, to make changes in the management team; fourthly in order to pursue some form of special interest, such as a social and ethical agenda (it is this agenda which will be looked at in more detail in the paper below). Finally, shareholder activism is undertaken to influence the outcome of some form of corporate agenda that has already been pursued (Tarrow, 1994). Shareholders have always had the option of essentially voting with their feet, when they disapprove of the decisions of the management team. For example, they can simply sell their shares, where traditionally the criticisms of management decisions would take place in private, with shareholders simply moving away when they were displeased. Although the concept of shareholder activism is not necessarily new, in recent years, it has certainly increased in its operation and become much more prevalent. Examples of recent shareholder activism include action by an institutional investor, Knight Vinke Asset Management which lobbied for changes in the HSBC strategy, or in Tesco where shareholders became involved in demanding changes in working conditions relating to clothes’ suppliers in Asia. Interestingly, shareholder activism does not depend on the size of the market, with shareholder activism being a tool that can be used in any type of organisation. Those holding shares are also potentially able to act in this way and therefore this lends a considerably more diverse meaning to the notion of shareholder activism, which can be derived from a much broader range of sources (Roe, 2003). With this potential diversity in mind, the next step is to look at the tools that are available for the activist shareholder and to identify the statutory basis upon which such action can take place. Legal Basis One of the key statutory powers which are available in order to support shareholder activism is that of the Companies Act 2006 (the Act). This Act lays down the legal framework which enables a shareholder to exercise any of their legal rights when they are pursuing an activist agenda. The precise options available to the shareholder will depend on the type of company in which they hold shares; for example, there are different rights attached to public companies. For the purpose of this analysis, all potential legal rights will be looked at and it should be borne in mind that these may not always be available, particularly to shareholders of private companies (Warneryd, 2005). In accordance with sections 303 to 305 of the Act, shareholders are able to call a general meeting. This is a strong element of the shareholder activism as it provides members with a platform in which they can make their requirements known. In the aftermath of the Shareholder Rights Directive 2009, members and groups of shareholders representing a minimum of 5% of the public companies voting rights are able to demand that the directors call a general meeting of the company. Similarly, where the directors choose to convene a general meeting there are rules associated with giving notice to the individual shareholders. This allows shareholders the opportunity to bring a platform upon which to discuss their own issues. Secondly, in accordance with sections 314 – 317, members with a shareholding of at least 5% or shareholders or that have at least 100 shares with an average of at least ?100 per member are entitled to demand that the company circulates a statement to shareholders of up to 1,000 words regarding a proposed resolution or any other business that is going to take place at the meeting. This again provides the shareholders with the information that they need in order to be potentially active. It is also noted that beneficial owners of shares can count towards the threshold in order to meet the 5% trigger (Belloc and Pagano, 2009). As well as the ability to gain access to the meeting and information in relation to the meeting, shareholders are also entitled to be active within the meeting itself. In accordance with section 338, shareholders holding a total of 5% shares can propose a resolution, a strategy that was used by the investor â€Å"efficient capital structures† but they required a resolution as part of the 2007 AGM of Vodafone plc to pursue a specific strategy. Furthermore, section 168 provides shareholders with the ability to propose the removal of the directors. Arguably, this is one of the greater sanctions available to shareholders, from the perspective of the individual directors. Where this process is being initiated, special notice of 28 days must be given of the intention to propose this resolution and to reasonably work in line with the articles of association of the company (Filatotchev, et al 2006). Importantly, section 116 of the Act allows any shareholders to gain access to the shareholder register which then may offer them the opportunity for the shareholders to join forces in order to deal with a particular agenda, making the ability to reach the 5% thresholds somewhat easier. There are, however, requirements for shareholders to ensure that when they are canvassing support they are doing so for the proper purpose. There are certain thresholds which allow shareholders to have rights, with 5% offering the opportunity to propose a resolution, to require an independent report in the case of quoted companies, the power to require companies to publish audit concerns, again in quoted companies, and also the power to include a matter that should be considered at AGM. When the required percent of the shareholders join forces, the power becomes much more threatening to the management team, as this is the requisite amount required a specific resolution. For example, at 75%, the shareholders can require a special resolution to be passed. The regime associated with proxies can play a very important role when it comes to shareholder activism with the 2006 Act making changes as to the way in which proxies can operate, allowing the property to be much more effective. For example, members have an absolute right to appoint a proxy who can attend a meeting and vote on their behalf. Another key area of shareholder activism emerged from the ability to use corporate representation, rather than using a proxy, as this allows shareholders a much greater degree of practical flexibility when they are unable to comply with proxy deadlines, or some other form of formality. Corporate shareholders are also able to appoint representatives by virtue of their own board resolution. Finally, it is worth noting that shareholders’ rights can be utilised by indirect investors. For example, under the 2006 Act, it is possible for the beneficial shareholders holding shares to enjoy information rights, i.e. to obtain information in relation to the company and in many cases the beneficial shareholders can count towards reaching the 5% thresholds. Although this goes beyond the scope of the discussion here, it is worth noting that these beneficial shareholders can have a direct impact on any agenda for shareholder activism.Examples of Shareholder ActivismIn order to gain an understanding of just how effective these legal provisions can be, the situation in Tesco can be looked at. In 2007, the poverty charity â€Å"War on Want† used the fact that it held a 5% shareholding in order to present a resolution at the 2007 AGM, with a view to ensuring a better deal for suppliers, in particular across Asia. The matter did not rest there and in June 2008 Tesco was tar geted once again by a group of shareholders who were headed by an individual high- profile shareholder, to look at the living conditions of chickens, prior to their purchase by Tesco for sale. The shareholders in both these cases used section 338 of the Companies Act 2006, in order to demand resolutions relating to their individual issues. Once this resolution had been demanded, the company was required to circulate information relating to the resolution, as well as any supporting statements (Aguilera, 2005). This type of shareholder activism was seen to be successful in these individual cases and provided a real forum for the shareholders with a relatively minimal percentage to change the strategy and activities of the organisation itself. Tesco is not alone in facing these types of issues and many other large companies have also faced action from minimal shareholders, relating to specific issues such as wages for staff or supplier issues. This shows a clear indication of the willingness of shareholders to become much more active in putting their points forward and being willing to take on corporations by forcing resolutions to be placed and information to be provided to the broader shareholding (Hendry et al 2007).Analysis and ConclusionsThe question presented here is to consider whether or not shareholder activism can truly have an impact on organisations, when it comes to encouraging changes and improving corporate social responsibility within the organisation. By looking at the history of shareholder activism and the way in which shareholders are becoming much more willing to engage in the operation of the company, as well as examining the provisions of the 2006 Act which provide shareholders with the ability to un dertake these activities, it is argued here that shareholder activism is a growing and real threat to management teams of all sizes. In particular, the 2006 Act offers a considerable opportunity for shareholders to demand information and to have certain items discussed at the AGM. By merely providing this platform for discussion, shareholders can become more active in order to ensure their ultimate agenda is not pursued. By looking at this and using a company such as Tesco as an example, it can be seen that groups of shareholders are gaining real attention and are able to have a direct and dramatic impact on the decisions made by the management teams, particularly when faced with the ultimate sanction that shareholders can request the removal of those directors who fails to comply (Gillan and Starks, 2000). It is concluded here, therefore, that shareholder activism is a real and direct method whereby shareholder groups can encourage changes in the strategy of the organisation relating to both corporate, social responsibility and any other relevant issues. References Aguilera, R.V. (2005) ‘Corporate governance and director accountability: An institutional comparative perspective’ British Journal of Management, 16: S39–S53. Bainbridge, S. M. (1995) The politics of corporate governance, Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy, Vol. 18 (3), pp. 671-735. Belloc, M. and Pagano, U. (2009) Co-evolution of politics and corporate governance, International Review of Law and Economics, Vol. 29 (2), pp. 106-114. Filatotchev, I., Jackson, G., Gospel, H., and Allcock, D. (2006) Key Drivers of ‘Good’ Corporate Governance and the Appropriateness of UK Policy Responses The Department of Trade and Industry and King’s College London. Gillan, S.L. and Starks, L.T (2000) ‘Corporate governance proposals and shareholder activism: The role of institutional investors’ Journal of Financial Economics, 57 (2): 275- 305. Hendry, J., Sanderson, P., Barker, R. and Roberts, J. (2007) ‘Responsible ownership, shareholder value and the new shareholder activism’ Competition & Change,11 (3): 223-240. Roe, M.J. (2003) Political Determinants of Corporate Governance: Political Context, Corporate Impact Oxford University Press. Schacht, K.N. (1995) ‘Institutional investors and shareholder activism: Dealing with demanding shareholders’ Directorship, 21 (5): 8-12. Tarrow, S. (1994) Power in Movement: Collective Action, Social Movements, and Politics in Marens, R. (2002) ‘Inventing corporate governance: The mid-century emergence of shareholder activism’ Journal of Business & Management, 8 (4): 365. Warneryd, K. (2005) Special issue on the politics of corporate governance: Introduction, Economics of Governance, Vol. 6 (2), pp. 91-92.

Counterproductive Effects in Rewards and Motivation

When employing, retention and parting signify intricate, long term and multi- layered dealings rather than a Counterproductive Effects in Rewards and Motivation simple market deal, employees and employers will be principally careful to avoid entering the relationship with an inappropriate partner but, in speedily moving economic and industrial environments it is rational that a firm's employment needs will be changing too. In this situation, a guarantee of long-term employment would be extremely expensive if the firm is not able to reallocate workers to new tasks as the requirements rose.So, Counterproductive Effects in Rewards and Motivation for employees, surviving and been considered by the firm as a valued component in these conditions becomes a personal challenge, especially if these employees' performance is compared with others' using subjective evaluation systems based not only in performance and results, but also in perceptions and Image. Human Wealth refers to the knowledge and acquired skills; a person has to upsurge his or her ability to conduct activities with economic value. Human Wealth is most often acquired by knowledge on through teaching by others who already have the necessary skills.It is the factor that differentiates raw labor power from skilled expertise at some task or job and as a crucial determinant of productivity. Today's companies' true strength resides in their Human Capital so, an impulse to improve the human development into the organizations becomes crucial to guarantee its survival in this highly competitive world. It is necessary that top & middle management perform a deep auto critic of their attitudes in order to look, find and sustain that motivation that worries us. It is useful to distinguish between firm-specific and general-purpose (or non-specific) Human Capital.Skills and knowledge that increases the person's productivity when working for any of several different employers represents general-purpose Human Capital, an d normally, a firm is unlikely to help pay this kind of tuition. On the other hand, firm-specific Human Capital, like knowledge of the firm's specific accounting system, machines or procedures. It might seem worthwhile for an employer to invest in worker's firm-specific Human Capital.